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Archaeologists excavating Gwalala Hill in South Africa’s northern Kruger National Park have uncovered thousands of Southeast Asian glass beads, metal slag, and elephant bones dating from 1300 to the early 1400s, revealing precolonial trade networks that supplied elite societies like Thulamela. According to University of Mpumalanga associate professor Tim Forssman, the discoveries demonstrate how early communities generated wealth and power through long-distance exchange.
Excavations at Gwalala Hill in the Pafuri region have revealed thousands of glass beads originating in Southeast Asia, according to University of Mpumalanga associate professor Tim Forssman. Chemical analyses cited by Forssman show these beads reached the Limpopo Valley through East African trade networks stretching to the coast of modern-day Mozambique.
Uncovering Precolonial Trade Networks at Gwalala Hill
The 200m-by-70m site sits near the confluence of the Limpopo and Luvuvhu rivers in the Makuleke Contractual Park. Identified in 2022 and excavated through May 2025 by Forssman and a team of student archaeologists, Gwalala Hill yielded unexpected productivity during four week-long sessions.
According to Forssman, the team found metal slag, ceramics including cotton-thread spindle whorls, and faunal remains from large game animals. “We had a lot of elephant bones coming up, which we expected, but it confirms our suspicion that ivory was being sourced and traded in the region,” Forssman states.
“To be honest, we never anticipated the site to be as productive as it has been.” — Tim Forssman, Associate Professor of Archaeology, University of Mpumalanga
Ground-Penetrating Radar and Radiocarbon Dating Results
The research team combined physical digging with advanced technology, utilizing ground-penetrating radar, aerial surveys, and light-detection and ranging surveys. According to field data, these methods mapped at least two large middens, preserved hut floors, grain bin foundations, stone platforms, and possible agricultural terracing.
Radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples recovered in 2025 established a peak occupation period from roughly 1300 to the early 1400s. Additional artifacts trace earlier occupation back to the 1200s, positioning Gwalala as a strategic corridor of exchange for prolonged periods.
Did You Know?
Glass bead making did not occur on the African continent during the occupation of Gwalala Hill.
Connecting Gwalala Hill to Thulamela and Regional Kingdoms
Forssman and his team are now investigating how Gwalala Hill relates to Thulamela, a late Iron Age hilltop settlement located a few kilometers to the east. By studying these sites together, researchers aim to trace how access to traded resources enabled local communities to form complex societies and elite political structures.
According to Forssman, connecting these precolonial histories helps bridge the gap left by a traditionally Eurocentric approach to archaeology and colonial land dispossession. This continuity links ancient trade networks to the heritage of the Makuleke community and the roots of the Zulu, Pedi, and Venda kingdoms.
“My history as a black woman is repeating itself every time I uncover a piece of pottery on site,” says Kholekha Makhubu, a second-year master’s student at the University of Mpumalanga who worked on the excavation.
Frequently Asked Questions
Where is Gwalala Hill located?
Gwalala Hill is located in the Pafuri region of the northern Kruger National Park, within the Makuleke Contractual Park near the confluence of the Limpopo and Luvuvhu rivers.
What artifacts have archaeologists found at Gwalala Hill?
Researchers have uncovered thousands of Southeast Asian glass beads, metal slag, ceramics, cotton-thread spindle whorls, and large game faunal remains including elephant bones.
When was Gwalala Hill primarily occupied?
Radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples indicates the site’s peak occupation occurred from approximately 1300 to the early 1400s, with some artifacts dating back to the 1200s.
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