A ten-year longitudinal study published in May in the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity reveals that leisure-time physical activity in São Paulo, Brazil, is deeply unequal, with the gap between social strata widening significantly over time. According to scientists at the University of São Paulo (USP), highly educated white men are exercising more, while women from racial minorities with low levels of education face the lowest participation rates.
The Widening Exercise Gap in São Paulo
Led by researchers at USP, the study tracked 978 participants from 2014 to 2024. Data collection occurred across three distinct phases: 2014/15, 2020/21, and 2023/24. By utilizing an intersectional social identities framework, the scientists analyzed how combinations of sex, race, skin color, and educational attainment shape access to recreational movement.
During the initial survey, the prevalence of leisure-time physical activity sat at 51% for white men with higher levels of education. In contrast, only 29% of the most vulnerable group reported engaging in such activities. By the third assessment phase, those figures shifted to 65% and 39% respectively, demonstrating a widening gap.
“We concluded that engaging in physical activity for leisure doesn’t depend solely on motivation or individual choice. It’s shaped by environmental, structural, and social factors,” says Andreia Alexandra Machado Miranda, a nutritionist, corresponding author, and member of the Center for Epidemiological Research in Nutrition and Health (NUPENS) at the USP School of Public Health (FSP).
Structural Barriers and the Ecological Model
The research team applied the ecological model of physical activity to understand its determinants. Alex Antonio Florindo, a professor at the USP School of Arts, Sciences, and Humanities (EACH) and a co-author of the study, notes that physical activity relies heavily on life experiences, family support, and external factors like environmental access and public policies.
“There’s a significant gap between those who are able to engage in physical activity during their leisure time and those who aren’t, even if they want to,” Florindo tells Agência FAPESP.
Miranda points out that women face compounding obstacles beyond mere time constraints. “In addition to dealing with an unequal distribution of domestic work, they often earn lower wages and face a lack of safety when visiting public spaces. Depending on the neighborhood where they live, especially in outlying areas, there’s a lack of urban infrastructure, poorly lit areas, and few open spaces,” she explains.
Did you know? Researchers used the long version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) alongside a Multiple Jeopardy Index. This index scores participants from 0 (least vulnerable) to 4 (most vulnerable) based on sex, race, skin color, and education.
Commuting as an Equalizer in Urban Mobility
While leisure exercise remains stratified, walking as a form of urban transportation tells a different story. The study found no statistically significant correlation between the social vulnerability index and transport-related physical activity.
Overall participation in commuting-related walking rose from 61.8% to 71.6% between the first and third assessment periods. This behavior was most prevalent among young Black or mixed-race men holding a high school education.
Miranda suggests that walking to work is driven primarily by daily necessity and mobility constraints rather than personal choice. Integrating walking into daily routines offers a reliable way to boost public health in cities while reducing reliance on private cars, according to the research team.
Public Health Implications and Urban Policy
Physical activity provides proven health benefits, including lower risks of stroke, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes, alongside better weight control and immune function. Yet, data from the World Health Organization shows that nearly one-third of adults globally failed to meet minimum activity recommendations in 2022, with sedentary lifestyles linked to roughly 5 million annual deaths.
In Brazil, the Ministry of Health’s VIGITEL survey reported that 42.3% of adults engaged in at least 150 minutes of moderate physical activity weekly in 2024, with a national target of 50.7% by 2030. Gender disparities persist nationally, with 47.7% of men and 37.9% of women meeting these benchmarks.
To address these urban disparities, the researchers advocate for prioritizing vulnerable populations in public policy. Florindo highlights the expansion of bike lanes in São Paulo as an example of such a policy, noting that infrastructure within 500 meters of a residence actively encourages cycling. The research group continues to analyze these longitudinal datasets, with current projects aiming to link physical activity patterns to dietary habits.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who was most affected by the lack of leisure-time physical activity?
According to the USP study, Black, Brown, Asian, or Indigenous women with fewer years of schooling experienced the lowest rates of physical activity during leisure time.
Did commuting-related walking show the same social inequalities?
What institutional support funded this research?
The study received support from FAPESP through a Thematic Project alongside a research grant from the BRIDGE Global Health Partnership, funded by the University of Birmingham and the University of Illinois.
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